Meaning of Illness essays

Meaning of Illness essays Professional Articles The Social Meaning of Illness The article that I choose to use for this assignment was "The Measurement of Meaning in Illness" by Betsy L. Fife. I was assigned chapter 5, which dealt with the social meaning of illness. The chapter explored the idea of illness as a form of social control and considers the various models of illness and how they have changed over time. The Sociological model of illness refers to the subjective judgment regarding the meaning of the condition or behavior. It defines illness by defining its abnormal and undesirable affects. Illness is also shown to be a social construction, or something that exists in the world because we have defined it as existing rather than it being an objective condition. This means that labeling a condition an illness will reflect the perceived undesirable affects of that condition. Therefor, when we label a person as ill, we are labeling them as undesirable. Illness is defined in terms of social norms which are expectations within a given culture regarding proper behavior or appearance. From the sociological standpoint, illness is a form of deviance. Deviance refers to the behaviors or conditions that socially powerful persons within the culture perceive either accurately or inaccurately as immoral or as violating social norms.. Violations of social norms result in the enforcement of negat ive social sanctions, or any form of punishment from ridicule to execution. These social sanctions are enforced by social control agents such as parents, police, doctors and teachers. Over time there were several theories that were developed to help explain illness. Modern theories of the causes of illness are divided into either personalistic theories or naturalistic theories. Personalistic theories of illness are derived from thoughts that an illness occurs when a god, witch, spirit or other supernatural power lashes out at an individual either deservedly or m...

Writing a Critical Essay

Writing a Critical Essay Writing a Critical Essay While writing a critical essay, your purpose is to convey in your own words the sense of what the text is saying. Explain how the text creates its meaning. Open your critical literary essay with a thesis statement which demonstrates your point of view. The body of your critical essay is a presentation or defense of your interpretation. While writing critical essay, you should present your understanding of the text. In the conclusion of the critical essay, you sum up your findings, restate your thesis statement and arguments briefly. If you wish, you may extend the significance of the reading - comment on cultural or moral or technical significances of the topic and techniques of the text. You may also start writing critical essay in other way. For example, note what the main difficulties are to an interpretation of the novel. It is important to give the reader a sense of how you are proceeding in the critical essay and why: Critical Essay Help While writing a critical essay outline, you should describe the message that author wanted to bring, the significance of the book. Describe what the book is about, enumerate the major parts of the book in their order and relation, and define the problem that the author is trying to solve. Try to find the most important sentences in the book and use them to support your argumentation. Determine the author' solutions of the problem. Writing a critical essay means that you begin to argue with the author and express your point of view. Choose a specific topic that you want to explore further in your critical essay. The goal of the critical essay writing is to persuade the reader to accept your point of view. Include a thesis statement describing the subject you have chosen and why it interests you. You must have a clearly defined argumentative thesis. Write the thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph, preferable it should be the last sentence.Read the books that you feel will be relevant to your chosen topic. Write your ideas as a summary form to create the basis of critical essay writing. Along with this summary, make an outline for you critical essay. Each idea should be started with new paragraph; each paragraph should have its topic sentence. The reader should see the development of your analysis by looking at the beginning of each paragraph. At the end, when you think critical essay is ready, proofread and correct all mistakes. Custom Critical Essay Writing Service If critical essay writing is a challenging assignment for you, do not panic! We are available at any time of day and night to help you with any step of critical essay writing. is experienced in custom writing and we know how great critical essay should be written! Popular posts: Research Paper Conclusion Persuasive Research Paper Paper Research Help Writing a Research Paper Free Research Paper

Deaf infants and development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Deaf infants and development - Essay Example (The Care of Infants and Young Children) Speech does not disappear, but voice gets a strange sounding, there is a intonation breach, stress breach, speech is quick, vocabulary is limited (lack of words that expresses abstract notions, only simple sentences are used) Everything mentioned above proves that hearing reduce negatively influences on the speech development. Besides we should take into consideration that we use different loudness while speaking: there are stressed and unstressed sounds in speech, voiceless consonants, etc. Among the different factors that impact the child’s speech we can outline: the degree of the hearing reduce – the worse a child hears, the worse he/she speaks; age of the speech breach – the earlier it happens the more difficult it is; conditions of the child’s growing – the results of bringing up are better if the child is treated in time; physical and psychological development. A negative impact has the limitation of the social contacts in infant’s age when a person should take the world through the sounds. The defected children require special treatment and control by the doctors and teachers. Though the sign systems have different meanings for socialization in different periods of childhood. Usually children use verbal, imaginary-moving and imaginary-graphical signs and socialize through the playing games. Role games, painting and drawing are very important for socializing children who have any kind of defects. All these kind of activity help to form imaginary thinking. (Dr. Eloise Murray) Bringing up the child with diminished hearing, parents should make a responsible choice – method of teaching. Besides the family climate is also very important for the social and cognitive development. The psychologists differentiate several types of relationship with a deaf child: understanding; â€Å"overcaring†; non-real treatment (parents treat their child as a healthy one); indifference(the most dangerous type of

Deforestation in Cuba Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Deforestation in Cuba - Research Paper Example There are many other functions of forests. Human activities in the modern global world are often harmful for the environment and it is hard to imagine where we will leave, if forests are further devastated. Nowadays people are cutting trees illegally. The most critical issue for the environmentalists starting from 2000 is the issue of deforestation. Moreover, there is no doubt that preservation of wildlife is current environmental problems in Cuba. This research paper is focused on the issue of deforestation in Cuba and possible ways of prevention of these harmful activities of people. Forests are the most valuable ecosystems on the planet. Forests are the sources of biological diversity, relevant to regulation of climate, and are very important for maintaining biosphere integrity. Forests produce very important economic goods and services, such as timber, energy, food, water, pharmaceuticals, and recreation opportunities (Wagner, 2006). Therefore, there is no option to promote defor estation, but it is relevant to sustain forests and support ecosystem. Otherwise, deforestation can lead to incurable consequences of destroying human activities. Deforestation can lead to one quarter of anthropogenic carbon emissions (Wagner, 2006). Cuba suffers from essential negative impact of deforestation. There is a need for the local government to implement forests protecting policies and decrease the levels of deforestation. Cuba is an island country located in the Caribbean 90 miles away from the Florida coast of the United States. This country has an interesting history. Cuba territory includes 110,860 km, and 23.0 percent forest covered. Deforestation in Cuba is considered to be economical, social and environmental problem of the country. Very often people are dealing with natural resources as endless ones. Starting from the last decade of XX century, deforestation was triggered by political and economic factors. Political power in Cuba initiated numerous programs of refo restation. The government has been focused on the importance on the issues of deforestation prevention. Politicians made an emphasis on the necessity of forest ecosystems management. During different periods of time, Cuba experienced three basic political periods and each era was marked by the effects of different agendas on forest ecosystems. Social and Economic Impacts of Deforestation Environmental reforms in Cuba are improving the forests cover in the country. Social development and development of forests in Cuba have been taken into account by the international community. These two issues should be considered in detail; while it is a well-known fact that flourishing of the modern Cuban society depends on natural and economic welfare. The United Nations calculated that Cuba belonged to the High Human Development Index starting from in 2006 (Where Cuba Leads, 2006). Social and forest development in the country have been often mentioned by the international community. There is no doubt that Cuba has many options of further development, but there is no doubt that prevention of deforestation is first and foremost important agendas for the country. There are many flora species in Cuba, such as Reistonea regia, the tall Cuban Royal Palm and many others. Cuba is well-known as a heart of biodiversity in the Caribbean region. Almost 50 percent of plants in Cuba are endemic. Ecosystem reserves in Cuba are acknowledged by the United

Arendt-Theory of Totalitarianism Essay Example for Free

Arendt-Theory of Totalitarianism Essay Hannah Arendt is widely regarded as one of the most important, unique and influential thinkers of political philosophy in the Twentieth century. Arendt was greatly influenced by her mentor and one time lover, Martin Heidegger, whose phenomenological method would help to greatly shape and frame Arendt’s own thinking. Like Heidegger, Arendt was sceptical of the metaphysical tradition which tended towards abstract conceptual reasoning; ultimately at odds with the reality of human lived experience. Consequently, Arendt was highly dubious of being referred to as a philosopher, as she felt philosophy was, by its own essence, confined to the proverbial ivory tower. She believed political life was at the apex of human experience and so she identified as a political thinker/actor. Her emphasis on the phenomenological nature of the lived political experience permeates her life’s works and perhaps can be said to constitute her own distinct brand of political philosophy. Arendt’s early publication, Ideology Terror: A Novel Form of Government, is a profound elucidation of the nature of the theretofore unprecedented (she argues) phenomenon of Totalitarianism and its â€Å"origins elements and functioning † A Novel Form of Government: Arendt posited that the totalitarian forms of â€Å"government and domination† (Arendt. 03) which characterised the Nationalist Socialist party in Germany and Stalin’s oppressive regime in Soviet Russia, which saw systematic genocide and terror visited upon literally millions of innocent people, were unprecedented in the history of political systems, and were not mere modern manifestations of ancient forms of violent government such as despotism or tyranny. She went further even, to suggest that totalitarian systems had destroyed the very foundations upon which traditional ideas and presuppositions of government rested. Although totalitarianism seemed to contain elements of tyrannical or despotic forms of government i. e. terror, violence, absolute power etc Arendt contended that totalitarian regimes differed in important ways which rendered them qualitatively distinct. Tyranny and dictatorships, she argues are marked by â€Å"Arbitrary power, unrestricted by law, yielded in the interest of the ruler and hostile to the interests of the governed, on one hand, fear as the principle of action, namely fear of the people by the ruler and fear of the ruler by the eople †(Arendt. 306) Terror, according to Arendt, has traditionally been used as a means to an end, or tool for tyrannical regimes, namely the end of maintaining and sustaining a position of power over its subjects. Totalitarian systems however, do not function in this way, ideologically at least, According to Arendt. â€Å"total terror leaves no arbitrary lawlessness behind it and does not rage for the sake of some arbitrary will or for the sake of despotic power of one man against all. † (Arendt. 311) Context and Content: In order to understand the nature (if there is one) of Totalitarianism forms of government, it is important first to understand both their historical contexts and the Ideologies which underpin them, as Totalitarian regimes, are by their nature ideological, as Arendt shows. Take for example National Socialism, the political ideology which took root in Germany during the 1930’s, characterised by militant nationalism and overtly inherent racism. The context in which the Nazi party rose to prominence was the extreme devastation, debt and resulting poverty and hunger left in Germany in the wake of the First World War. It can indeed be argued that Adolph Hitler’s demagoguery and flair for rousing public sympathy with his intense speeches, was also crucial to the widespread proliferation, acceptance and support for Nazi ideology, at a time when people yearned for a clear solution to their plight and poverty. Hitler’s bellicose rhetoric displayed a typical trait of ideologies; a final solution, the idea that the answer to all of life’s problems can be understood and solved by following a particular stringent course of action determined by a single unambiguous worldview. Ideologies-isms, which to the satisfaction of their adherents can explain everything and every occurrence by deducing it from a single premise† (Arendt. 315) Nazi Ideology had at its core, a politically and indeed racially motivated perversion of the Darwinian concept of a natural hierarchy of species, in which the stronger/more successful species would inevitably replace the weaker ones. Darwin’s profound insight into the ways in which organisms evolve was warped and misrepresented by the Nazis, who filtered it through their racist and nationalist worldview, justifying the extermination of Jews and other supposed degenerate races by claiming they were following and indeed implementing a Law of Nature. In Darwin, Arendt explains, the Nazi party had found what they saw as an unbending Natural Law, the very source from which positive (manmade) laws had been traditionally derived. far from being lawless, it goes to the sources of authority from which positive laws received their ultimate legitimation† (Arendt. 307) Arendt argues that this Law of Nature was taken to be a suprahuman edict which was used justify their campaign of terror and genocide, and furthermore usurp any positive laws which were counter-productive to their cause. Nature itself mandated the extermination of lesser â€Å"degenerate† races according to Nazi ideology. And so the carryin g out and indeed hastening of the process of this â€Å"Natural† decree was the end which the Totalitarian regimes sough to effect. In fact, Totalitarian ideology sought for the actual societal embodiment of these supposed Laws of history and nature, and asserted that by the strict implantation and of these laws, a utopia on Earth would be realised. â€Å"the Law of Nature or the law of History, if properly executed, is expected to produce mankind as its end product† (Arendt. 307) Arendt is highly critical of this thinking which she describes as particular to Totalitarian government. One of the most obvious critiques which she makes is the complete disregard in this line of thinking for basic anthropological concerns i. e. ow humans actually tend to behave and function. â€Å"It applies the law directly to mankind without bothering with the behaviour of men Totalitarian policy claims to transform the human species into an active unfailing carrier of a law to which human beings otherwise would only passively and reluctantly be subjected† (Arendt. 307) Terror as the essence of Totalitarian rule: Built into the notion of executing the Laws of nature and history is an inherent eschewing of the legitimacy, importance and even relevance of manmade or positive laws, which are intended to govern and ease the functioning of societies in which people participate. The denial of positive laws and their replacement with the bringing into effect, a Law of Nature or indeed a Law of History as per Totalitarian ideology, is, Arendt argues largely what separates Totalitarian regimes from despotism and tyranny. Because they drew their justification from the very source of all positive laws i. e. Natural law, Totalitarian regimes were able to substantiate this denial of the legitimacy of positive laws by claiming that in aiming to produce the perfect rule of Natural Law on earth, that mankind itself would become the very â€Å"embodiment of the law† (Arendt. 08) By claiming to actualise and bring into effect fundamental laws which determine the inevitable course of history by establishing the perfect rule of Natural law on earth through use of terror, Totalitarian regimes subvert at the same time traditional notions of government and also notions of the utility of terror. Terror was no longer merely an arbitrary tool of oppression, (although it was of course the methodology with which the terrible ideology of Totalitarianism was realised) Terror was itself the embodied form which submission to the supposed Law of Nature took, or as Arendt puts it â€Å"Terror as the execution of a law of movement Arendt. 311)† Terror was in fact now the end goal itself; as such Terror is indeed Totalitarianism’s essence. Arendt uses a good analogy to illustrate this point. â€Å"the absence of crimes in any society does not render laws superfluous but, on the contrary, signifies their most perfect rule-so terror in totalitarian government has ceased to be a mere means for the suppression of opposition, though it is also used for such purposes. Terror becomes total when it becomes independent of all opposition; it rules supreme when nobody any longer stands in its way. If lawfulness is the essence of non-tyrannical government and lawlessness is the essence of tyranny, then terror is the essence totalitarian domination† Dangerous Ideology: What made Nazism and Stalinism so dangerous, according to Arendt, were not merely the ideas which characterised their respective ideologies i. e. racism and dialectical materialism, but the logic which one could arguably follow from these types of thinking. If Ideologies are the logic of ideas, (which they are! ) then it is the seemingly logical implications of these ideas, which made them dangerous. To put it simply, if one concludes that there are suprahuman forces which determine the very course of history, as espoused by Nazism and Stalinism, then one must be bound to follow the logical steps which lead from this idea. â€Å"Whoever agreed that there are such things as dying classes and did not draw the consequence of killing their members, or that the right to live had something to do with race and did not draw the consequence of killing unfit races, was plainly either stupid or a coward†. (Arendt. 318) The dangers of commitment to the logic of ideas bviously are determined by the extremity of the ideas themselves, however as Arendt rightly points out, it is this ice cold reasoning which both Hitler and Stalin were very fond of which gave their ideologies a trajectory of power and an pseudo-scientific guise which legitimated them. Rather than a principle of action aimed at some common good or societal benefit such as the prevention of crime, this â€Å"logicality of ideological thinking† (Arendt. 321) is what makes Totalitarian government tick. Isolation, The Phenomenology of Terror: As we have seen, terror is the essence of Totalitarianism. But it is important to realise exactly what this means for the experiencing subject of Totalitarian rule. Terror, Arendt explains, destroys the ability to engage in any public life. Isolation is the most salient feature of terror. Terror wrought isolation has been used throughout the centuries by tyrannical rulers to inhibit political agency and thus destroy the possibility of revoltâ€Å" terror can rule absolutely only over men who are isolated against each other and that, therefore, one of the primary concerns of all tyrannical government is to bring isolation about Isolation and impotence, that is the fundamental inability to act at all, have always been characteristic of tyrannies. † (Arendt. 321-322) The final way in which Totalitarian governments differ from those regimes of tyranny, which have also employed terror as a tactic, is for Arendt, the destruction by terror of the private sphere of human life. Total terror, as it were, is not content with merely destroying the public life of people and their ability to interact. Total terror permeates the mind and destroys the faculties of creativity and mental autonomy. Totalitarianism seeks to destroy the entire ability for people to create something new and bring it into the world. While it obviously needs to destroy the ability of political life, it also enforces utter personal isolation (loneliness) on the mind of the individual, so that he or she has no outlet vent and indeed no ability to form ideas of their own. â€Å"In isolation, man remains in contact with the world as the human artifice; only when the most elementary forms of human creativity, which is the capacity to add something of ones own to the common world, are destroyed, isolation becomes altogether unbearable Totalitarian government, like all tyrannies, certainly could not exist without destroying the public realm of life, that is, without destroying, by isolating men, their political capacities but totalitarian domination as a form of government is new in that it is not content with this isolation and destroys private life as well. It bases itself on loneliness, on the experience of not belonging to the world at all, which is among the most radical and desperate experiences of man. † (Arendt. 24) The phenomenological and anthropological implications of this total terror are for Arendt the complete breakdown of the human actor. She argues that humans are essentially social beings who need social interaction to function and live as we are hardwired to do so; our complete sense of who we are and what our world means ultimately derives from our experience of interacting with others. â€Å"For the confirmation of my identity I depend entirely upon other people† (Arendt. 324) In conclusion I think it may be prudent to summarise the central elucidations which Arendt makes in Ideology and Terror. . Totalitarian governments were unprecedented governmental forms before the early 20th century. 2. Totalitarian governments are ideological in nature and functioning, and derive their justifications from suprahuman â€Å"Laws of Nature and History† and implement the logic of these ideas through use of terror. 3. Terror is the primary tool and also the essence of Totalitarian governments, i. e. Total terror becomes the actual embodied form of the Laws of History and nature made manifest 4.  Totalitarian governments destroy the ability to act politically as all tyrannies do, but also they destroy the realm of private life as well, rendering human existence a miserable one in attempting to make each person the actual embodiment of Natural and Historical Laws Arendt’s masterful work has shed light on one of the darkest periods in human history and it al so lends insight into the nature of government, society and the human subject more broadly speaking. She remains a seminal figure in the discipline of political philosophy and continues to inspire thought and debate to this day.

Escape Through Dementia in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gi

Escape Through Dementia in The Yellow Wallpaper   Ã‚  Ã‚   Charlotte Perkins Gilman's "The Yellow Wall-paper" is an excellent story on several levels. It works as a suspenseful thriller about the effects of mental illness. It also serves to make several points about feminism and the pervailing attitudes of her time. John, the husband, serves as a metaphor for masculine views of the time, and for the masculine side of humans, the side of reason and logic. "John is practical in the extreme. He has no patience with faith, an intense horor of superstition, and he scoffs openly at any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put down in figures" (1658). His character is almost stereotypical in its adherence to reason and its attittude towards his wife. He negates her intuition; "there is something strange about the house - I can feel it. I even said so to John one moonlight evening, but he said what I felt was a draught, and shut the window" (1658) He attributes her condition to "a slight hysterical tendency" (1658), which is, etymologically speaking, just a polite way of saying that she is instable due to being a woman. He is not interested in his wife's actual condition, rather in his diagnosis; "John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no reason to suffer, and that satisfie s him" (1659). His best advice is to not use her imagination (though trapped in an ugly room), but to become more reasonable and to resist her condition through willpower. When he does put her to bed and asks her to get well, he asks, not for her own self, but with him as the motivation; "He said [. . .] that I must take care of myself for his sake, and keep well" (1663). John is reasonable and educated. He represents a stifling pr... ...eedom from the bars in the pattern. This creeping about is certainly at odds with her husband's requests. It is irrational, in that she thinks she has escaped, when it is actually time to leave for good, and she has locked herself in. She defies his orders of bed rest, physically exhausting herself crawling about and pushing the bed and biting the bed and tearing the wall-paper. She overcomes her husband's forthright sensibility by acting so crazy that he cannot deny it, cannot make sense of it, cannot do anything but faint away, leaving her to crawl right over the top of him. She has escaped his oppression by going into her dementia and embracing it. Works Cited Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "The Yellow Wall-paper." The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Eds. Nina Baym, et. al. Shorter 5th ed. New York, London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999: 1656-1669.

Great Traditions In Ethics Essay

The overcoming of the fear of death figures as a key component of Epicurean philosophy. Because the Epicureans valued above all other accomplishments, the living of a good life and that â€Å"pleasure is the end of all morality and that real pleasure is attained through a life of prudence, honor, and justice† the acknowledgment in Epicurean philosophy that the fear of death intrudes upon individual happiness is not at all the same as admission that fear of death is an insurmountable condition, (â€Å"Epicureanism†). To the contrary, the epicurean philosophy seeks forts to identify the root causes of the fear of death, which are: â€Å"1) The fear of being dead. 2) The fear that one will die, that one’s life is going to end. 3) The fear of premature death. 4) The fear of the process of dying† and for each of these considerations, Epicurean philosophy provides a response. The intention of epicurean philosophy is to persuade its adherents that â€Å"death is not bad for the person who dies although death is inevitable and is the total annihilation of that person†; despite the belief in â€Å"total annihilation† Epicurus held no regard for death itself. The basic center of the Epicurean refusal to fear death lies in the epicurean belief that â€Å"God should not concern to us. Death is not to be feared† and these facts are unchangeable despite one’s subjective, emotional reactions. because death means the end of consciousness and the total annihilation of the individual, nothing exists beyond death which may cause fear at all,(Warren 4-7). It is only by admitting the fear of death and addressing it straight on through applied logic rather than religion or mysticism that the fear of death can be conquered. The Epicureans regarded the overcoming of the fear of death â€Å"at the very heart of their ethical project. They identified the goal of a good life as the removal of mental and physical pain. Mental pain they further characterized as anxieties and fears† because fear of death causes pain to the individual it must be overcome and it can be overcome by logical acceptance of the fact that death holds no pain for the person who experiences it. (Warren 6) Just as the fear of death prevented many individuals from achieving happiness in life, justice (or lack thereof) provides enmity to happiness in the Epicurean ethical tradition. For Epicurus, laws and justice are a matter of personal bearing and dignity as well as intelligence and experience. Under an Epicurean ethic, in a â€Å"world full of Epicurean sages there would be no need for written prescriptive laws. Everyone in that case would be able to see and remember what contributes to the utility of the community and would act accordingly† (Warren 183). The idea of breaking a rule of justice is wrong because it causes the eventual pain or threat of pain or disturbance to oters’ happiness as well as one’s own. Unlike Epicurus, St. Augustine sees the need for rigid law to control human society and he envisions this law emanating directly fro the Divine. In his distinction between the â€Å"City of God† and the â€Å"City of Men† he makes clear that the â€Å"church is divinely established and leads humankind to eternal goodness, which is God† and that in the ideal city, â€Å"The state adheres to the virtues of politics and of the mind, formulating a political community. Both of these societies are visible and seek to do good. † (Bonner 54) By contrast, the City of Man exists to serve selfishly driven needs and does not partake of the Divine spirit of creation and Divine Law. † The idea of self-love against the love of God separates the two cities an idea which â€Å"springs from what Augustine was afterwards to regard in The City of God as the architect of the Earthly City–love of self to the contempt of God† (Bonner 54).

Analysis of Chapters 8 and 9 in Paradise of the Blind Essay

Write an analysis of how Chapters 8 and 9 explore the connection between culture, food and community The interdependent connection between culture, food and community is pivotal in the demonstration of the importance Vietnamese tradition in Paradise of the Blind. Chapters eight and nine focus on the importance of culture through family particularly evident in the way food acts as an expression of this culture. Food is also used to establish a sense of community, which is an important aspect in the Vietnamese culture. Food is presented as a direct reflection of a person’s wealth in Vietnamese culture. Limited in other forms of power, women like Aunt Tam can rely on materialistic objects, such as food, in order to display their wealth and earn respect. This is evident as one of the guests at the feast exclaims, â€Å"What a pleasure this evening has been. A sumptuous meal followed by such spellbinding stories. This is a blessing from heaven.† The use of words with strongly positive connotations, such as â€Å"sumptuous† and â€Å"spellbinding† displays the great degree of appreciation and thus importance that food has on Vietnamese culture. This idea is further emphasised with the reference to the Gods and ancestral beings through the use of the word â€Å"heaven†. Another example of food reflecting the idea of wealth is when another guest says, â€Å"A sticky rice flavoured with rose-apple juice! Why, it’s exquisite.† Aunt Tam responds to the compliment, â€Å"Oh please, will you stop it?† The use of the word â€Å"exquisite† again highlights the importance of food and its inherent effectiveness in delivering praise. The way in which Aunt Tam replies, almost rehearsed and clichà ©d, suggests that there was an unspoken expectation of praise and therefore respect in the original intention of the feast. The undeniable connection between food and wealth reflects the material-focused culture of Vietnam. Another idea that connects food to culture is the idea of the sacrifice, particularly in relation to food. Selflessness is a major part of Vietnamese culture and a certain amount of gratification can be achieved through sacrifice, which is shown in these chapters as sacrifice of food. Hang observes that Aunt Tam â€Å"ate almost nothing as if watching me gave her greater pleasure.† Aunt Tam’s sacrifice of her own wellbeing reflects the cultural idea that the strongest link between people is in family. Aunt Tam is willing, even happy to sacrifice her own well-being in order to cater for Hang. This idea of sacrifice can also be linked to the cultural idea of worship and fate, whereby it is believed those who perform good deeds in the present will be rewarded in the future. This idea of selflessness has evidently also affected Hang as she says â€Å"I played the part of the successful niece†¦ I smile dutifully at everyone. My lips stiffened into a permanent smile.† Although Hang is obviously uncomfortable, which can be seen through the use of words such as â€Å"dutifully† and â€Å"stiffened†, she continues to put on a faà §ade of happiness to please her Aunt. This reinforces the cultural idea of the strength of familial ties as well as the importance of sacrifice in solidifying these relationships. The practice of food preparation establishes a sense of community in the chapter. Food preparation appears to have a rehearsed, methodical quality which is evident in the line â€Å"The scene was lively but well-ordered as if all the feverish activity was directed by the iron hand of some invisible conductor.† The simile of the conductor draws a comparison of food preparation to an orchestra, thereby highlighting the importance of group collaboration. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of the â€Å"feverish activity† and its â€Å"well-ordered† nature suggests the idea of controlled chaos. Thus the great amount of activity that is required in the practice of food preparation can only be completed with the cooperation of each individual party. Finally, the unchanging nature of culture is shown to cause conflict within Hang’s character as she is caught in her desire to become a modern woman and her family’s strong links to cultural traditions. Hang describes the countryside as â€Å"Everywhere, an indescribable backwardness hung in the air, immaterial yet terrifyingly present: It would be like this for eternity.† This line suggests not only in restrictive nature of culture but also shows how difficult it is to shake culture. The use of the phrase â€Å"terrifyingly present† highlights the inescapable nature of tradition and the strong bond to which each individual in the book is tied to their traditions. The ideas of food, culture and community are explore in chapters eight and nine, particularly through the ideas of family relationships and its strong links to traditional Vietnamese culture.

The Problem of Characterisation, Modern Subject, and Subjectivity in Soseki Natsumes Botchan

The Problem of Characterisation, Modern Subject, and Subjectivity in Soseki Natsumes Botchan What is the role of subjectivity and identity in discussing the concept of the modern subject? In his novel Botchan, Soseki Natsume presents the story of a young man which is given in the first-person narrative. This manner helps to readers to concentrate on the visions of the main character whose nickname is ‘Botchan’ without referring to the author’s impact, and in this case, the level of the subjectivity can be maximal.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Problem of Characterisation, Modern Subject, and Subjectivity in Soseki Natsume’s Botchan specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, the readers have the opportunity to follow the protagonist’s search for his identity during the whole novel. To understand the peculiarities of the main character’s vision of himself, it is necessary to focus on the first paragraphs of the novel in which Botchan introduces himself with accent uating the definite events of his childhood and with presenting the characteristics of his personality. Furthermore, in the first two paragraphs, Botchan provides his own characteristics with references to the words of the other people about him which make the picture more complex and allow speaking about the concept of subjectivity as the component of the modern subject in detail. The characteristics provided by Botchan and the people round him about his personality which are given in the first paragraphs are significant for understanding the protagonist’s vision of himself, the other persons’ view on him and for explaining the young man’s further actions, attitudes, and behaviours. The period between the 19th and 20th centuries in Japanese culture is characterised by changing the approaches to the language and its usage in literature. This problem was closely associated with the issue of the modern subject as the reflection of developing new tendencies in lite rature. During this period, Soseki Natsume â€Å"wrote obviously fictional novels that grappled with such weighty themes as the nature of the modern male intellectual subject’s relation to the kazoku kokka state, and to modernity more generally†1. The focus on the problems of an individual and his identity was the author’s reaction to the tendencies in literature and his vision of the problem of modern subject. From this point, the depiction of the main protagonist of Botchan is significant in relation to the details of the young man’s description and characterisation. Rubin states that Botchan is the â€Å"portrait of a simple hero who emerges from a loveless childhood to fight a world dominated by liars and cheats†2. The evidences for the fact that the boy’s childhood was rather unhappy for him are presented in the first paragraphs of the novel to make a special accent on them.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The first two paragraphs of Botchan are full of words with the negative connotation which are used to characterise a man as a personality. It is important to note that first word ‘loser’ is used by the narrator to tell about his childhood. The next characterisations such as the ‘boaster’ and ‘poor little creeping thing’ are given by the classmates. From this point, it can seem that Botchan can identify himself as a loser under the impact of the other persons’ considerations. However, the reaction of the classmates to the figure of Botchan can be the result of his own vision of his abilities. Nevertheless, the first words with the help of which Botchan tells about his childhood are not positive and emphasise the definite problems. Moreover, speaking about his spirit and behaviour, Botchan accentuates, â€Å"a great loser have I been ever since a c hild, having a rash, daring spirit, a spirit I inherited from my ancestors†3. Thus, the young man does not feel responsibility for the behaviour caused by his ‘rash, daring spirit’ because it is inherited. The reference to the ancestors can be explained as the reference to the boy’s parents who are responsible more for the boy’s actions according to the presenting idea, and this detail is the prediction of the further describing the boy’s relations with his father. It is important to pay attention to the fact that the word ‘rash’ is used for describing Botchan’s actions several times. Botchan focuses on his ‘rash, daring spirit’, and then the young man describes his actions as also ‘rash’ with accentuating that â€Å"some may be curious enough as to ask me why I did such a rash thing†4. However, the problem is in the fact that Botchan’s subjective vision of himself is rather controver sial where the notions ‘loser’ and ‘rash thing’ are difficult to be combined in order to characterise one person. Moreover, the opposition is complicated by the classmates’ vision of the boy as ‘a great boaster’. That is why, the description of the boy’s actions contributes to the readers’ perception of young Botchan as the boy who is inclined to act impulsively in order to express those male qualities which he can lack. The next image which Botchan wants to acquire can be reflected in the characterisation of a ‘strong boy’. Botchan pays attention to the following situation, â€Å"my father, seeing me come home on the back of the janitor, said in an angry tone that no strong boy could be hurt by jumping down from such a low height as from upstairs†5.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Problem of Characterisation, Modern Subject, and Subjectivity in Soseki Natsume’s Botch an specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The narrator emphasises that the boy’s father said the words ‘in angry tone’ which accentuates his dissatisfaction. ‘No strong boy could be hurt by jumping down’, but Botchan is hurt by the words of his father, and the boy decides to become really ‘strong boy’, and his father â€Å"would be proud to see me come out all right next time†6. Thus, Botchan wants his actions be approved by his father because he does not feel his support. The author presents the aspects of the situation with humour and in a quite informal and playful tone, but those details which are accentuated with the help of word choice allow the readers’ considerations about the peculiarities of Botchan’s identity and the young man’s personal vision of himself. In spite of the light tone using which the author presents the story about Botchan’s jumping down from the second story of the schoolhouse, it is important for readers to pay attention to the difficulties which are experienced by the main character of the novel in relation to his problematic identifying himself, subjective vision of his personality, and the other persons’ considering his actions. Botchan does not want to be a ‘poor little creeping thing’ and make accents on doing the rash things and impulsive actions which he tries to justify with references to his family and his ancestors. Thus, the problem of the modern subject in the Japanese literature with the protagonist’s uncertain identity, controversial subjectivity, and self-consciousness can be discussed in relation to the character of Botchan. Bibliography Natsume, Soseki. Botchan. USA: Tuttle Publishing, 2005. Orbaugh, Sharalyn. â€Å"The Problem of the Modern Subject†. In The Columbia Companion to Modern East Asian Literature, edited by Joshua S. Mostow, 24-35. USA: Columbia University Press, 2003. Rubin, Jay. â€Å"Soseki†. In Modern Japanese Writers, edited by Jay Rubin, 349-384. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Footnotes 1 Sharalyn Orbaugh, â€Å"The Problem of the Modern Subject†, in The Columbia Companion to Modern East Asian Literature, edited by Joshua S. Mostow, (USA: Columbia University Press, 2003), 32. 2 Jay Rubin, â€Å"Soseki†, in Modern Japanese Writers, edited by Jay Rubin, (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001), 361. 3 Soseki Natsume, Botchan, (USA: Tuttle Publishing, 2005), 13. 4 Ibid., 13. 5 Ibid., 13. 6 Ibid., 13.

The Election of 1884 - Cleveland and Blaine

The Election of 1884 - Cleveland and Blaine The election of 1884 shook up politics in the United States as it brought a Democrat, Grover Cleveland, to the White House for the first time since the administration of James Buchanan a quarter-century earlier. And the 1884 campaign was also marked by notorious mudslinging, including a paternity scandal. In an era when highly competitive daily newspapers were relaying every scrap of news about the two major candidates, it seems that rumors about Clevelands scandalous past would cost him the election. But then his opponent, James G. Blaine, a longtime political figure with a national reputation, participated in a catastrophic gaffe a week before election day. The momentum, especially in the critical state of New York, dramatically  swung from Blaine to Cleveland. And not only was the election of 1884 tumultuous, but it set the stage for several presidential elections to follow in the 19th century. Clevelands Surprising Rise to Prominence Grover Cleveland had been born in 1837 in New Jersey, but lived most of his life in New York State. He became a successful lawyer in Buffalo, New York. During the Civil War he chose to send a substitute to take his place in the ranks. That was entirely legal at the time, but he was later criticized for it. In an era when Civil War veterans dominated many facets of politics, Clevelands decision not to serve was ridiculed. In the 1870s Cleveland held a local post as sheriff for three years, but returned to his private law practice and probably anticipated no further political career. But when a reform movement swept New York State politics, the Democrats of Buffalo encouraged him to run for mayor. He served a one-year term, in 1881, and the following year ran for governor of New York. He was elected, and made a point of standing up to Tammany Hall, the political machine in New York City. Cleveland’s one term as New York’s governor positioned him to be the Democratic nominee for president in 1884. Within a span of four years, Cleveland was propelled by reform movements from his obscure law practice in Buffalo to the top spot on a national ticket. James G. Blaine, the Republican Candidate in 1884 James G. Blaine had been born into a political family in Pennsylvania, but when he married a woman from Maine he moved to her home state. Rising quickly in Maine politics, Blaine held statewide office before being elected to Congress. In Washington, Blaine served as Speaker of the House during the years of Reconstruction. He was elected to the Senate in 1876. He was also a contender for the Republican nomination for president in 1876. He  dropped out of the race in 1876 when he was implicated in a financial scandal involving railroad stocks. Blaine proclaimed his innocence, but he was often viewed with suspicion. Blaine’s political persistence paid off when he secured the Republican nomination in 1884. The 1884 Presidential Campaign The stage for the 1884 election had really been set eight years earlier, with the controversial and disputed election of 1876, when Rutherford B. Hayes took office and pledged to serve only one term. Hayes was followed by James Garfield, who was elected in 1880, only to be shot by an assassin a few months after taking office. Garfield eventually died from the gunshot wound and was succeeded by Chester A. Arthur. As 1884 approached, President Arthur sought the Republican nomination for 1884, but he wasn’t able to bring various party factions together. And, it was widely rumored that Arthur was in poor health. (President Arthur was indeed ill, and died in what would have been the middle of his second term.) With the Republican Party, which had held power since the Civil War, now in disarray, it seemed the Democrat Grover Cleveland had a good chance to win. Bolstering Cleveland’s candidacy was his reputation as a reformer. A number of Republicans who couldn’t support Blaine as they believed him to be corrupt threw their support behind Cleveland. The faction of Republicans supporting Democrats was dubbed Mugwumps by the press. A Paternity Scandal Surfaced in the 1884 Campaign Cleveland campaigned little in 1884, while Blaine ran a very busy campaign, giving about 400 speeches. But Cleveland encountered a huge obstacle when a scandal erupted in July 1884. The bachelor Cleveland, it was revealed by a newspaper in Buffalo, was having an affair with a widow in Buffalo. And it was also alleged that he had fathered a son with the woman. The accusations traveled quickly, as newspapers supported Blaine spread the story. Other newspapers, inclined to support the Democratic nominee, hustled to debunk the scandalous tale. On August 12, 1884, the New York Times reported that a committee of independent Republicans of Buffalo had investigated the charges against Cleveland. In a lengthy report, they proclaimed that the rumors, which involved charges of drunkenness as well as the purported abduction of a woman, were baseless.   The rumors, though, continued until election day. Republicans seized on the paternity scandal, mocking Cleveland by chanting the rhyme, â€Å"Ma, Ma, where’s my Pa?† Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion Created Trouble for Blaine The Republican candidate created a huge problem for himself a week before the election. Blaine attended a meeting in a Protestant church at which a minister chided those who had left the Republican Party by stating, â€Å"We don’t propose to leave our party and identify with the party whose antecedents are rum, Romanism, and rebellion.† Blaine sat quietly during the attack aimed at Catholics and Irish voters in particular. The scene was reported widely in the press, and it cost Blaine in the election, particularly in New York City. A Close Election Determines the Outcome The 1884 election, perhaps due to Cleveland’s scandal, was closer than many people expected. Cleveland won the popular vote by a narrow margin, less than half a percent, but secured 218 electoral votes to Blaine’s 182. Blaine lost the state of New York by little more than a thousand votes, and it was believed the â€Å"rum, Romanism, and rebellion† comments had been the fatal blow. The Democrats, celebrating Cleveland’s victory, took to mocking the Republican attacks on Cleveland by chanting, â€Å"Ma, Ma, where’s my Pa? Gone to the White House, ha ha ha!† Grover Cleveland’s Interrupted White House Career Grover Cleveland served a term in the White House but was defeated in his bid for reelection in 1888. However, he achieved something unique in American politics when he ran again in 1892 and was elected, thus becoming the only president to serve two terms that were not consecutive. The man who defeated Cleveland in 1888, Benjamin Harrison, appointed Blaine as his Secretary of State. Blaine was active as a diplomat, but resigned the post in 1892, perhaps hoping to once again secure the Republican nomination for president. That would have set the stage for another Cleveland-Blaine election, but Blaine wasn’t able to secure the nomination. His health failed and he died in 1893.

Analysis of the impact of individual personality upon formal group Essay

Analysis of the impact of individual personality upon formal group processes - Essay Example Various factors, such as the type of organization, the organizational structure and the conditions in the internal and external organizational environment are likely to influence the interaction between personality and the workplace. The role of personality within contemporary organizations is discussed in this paper. Particular emphasis is given on the potentials of personality to influence the behaviour of groups activating with each organization. At the next level, the existing theories of group processes are presented and analysed, aiming to identify the terms under which these processes interact with personality. It is proved that personality can highly affect group processes in modern organizations, especially in regard to organizations that are highly de-centralized, allowing the development of initiatives by employees at all levels of the organizational hierarchy. 2. Theories of personality – how these theories are relevant in contemporary organizations James & Mazerol le (2002) also claim that in the context of the workplace the characteristics of personality ‘are likely to become clearer compared to other environments’ (James & Mazerolle 2002, p.18). ... theory, which is based on the views of Freud and Mead, promotes the idea that personality is related to biology, meaning that the behaviour of individuals can be affected by their biological characteristics, as similar to those of their ancestors. However, this theory accepts the influence of the environment on human behaviour, noting that the continuous development of ‘the behaviour of adults is possible’ (Schneider & Smith 2004, p.10), even if it is influenced by ‘the experiences of these individuals during their childhood’ (Schneider & Smith 2004, p.10). According to this theory, when being in the workplace individuals can develop different modes of behaviour; however, the key role of childhood on employees’ behaviour should be highlighted. James & Mazerolle (2002) also claim that in the context of the workplace the characteristics of personality ‘are likely to become clearer compared to other environments’ (James & Mazerolle 2002, p.1 8). The reason seems to be the fact that in the workplace individuals have to face a series of different behavioural challenges, due to their coexistence with other individuals; as a result of this fact, in modern organizations are expected to develop a high range ‘of cognitive structures (beliefs, values) and cognitive processes (analysis)’ (James & Mazerolle 2002, p.18). Figure 1 - Stage Theory of Early Ego Integration and Object Relations (Christopher et al. 2001, p.693) The theory X and theory Y of McGregor remain the key theoretical frameworks for explaining the behaviour of individuals in modern organizations. The theory X is based on the view that people, by their nature, dislike work (Denhardt 2010). For this reason, in order to secure the high organizational performance, managers need to supervise, as